Connections between steel-concrete composite column and steel beam
Abstract
Composite steel-concrete columns of circular cross-section have high strength and stiffness, which theoretically could help to reduce the cost of construction, but their advantages are still widely unexploited. In comparison with other constructions, composite columns account for a diminutive market share. One of the many reasons for this, is the complexity of connections that may require on-site welding, which not only slows down the construction, but also makes it more expensive. With the recent extensive development of blind bolts, new design options for the tube columns emerged. Such bolted joints would eliminate onsite welding and speed up installation. In this review a particular attention is paid to the circular columns, because these columns have the least studied connections. This article reviews the most recent stage in the development of the connections between steel-concrete composite columns and steel beams, as well as provides provisions for using such connections and outlines the directions for further research.
Article in Lithuanian.
Plieno ir betono kompozitinių kolonų ir plieninių sijų mazgai
Santrauka
Apskritojo skerspjūvio plieno ir betono kolonos pasižymi dideliu stiprumu ir standumu, tai teoriškai leistų sumažinti medžiagų sąnaudas statybose, bet jų privalumai praktiškai neišnaudojami. Lyginant su kitomis konstrukcijomis, kompozitinės kolonos sudaro nykstamai mažą rinkos dalį. Viena iš daugelio to priežasčių yra mazgų sudėtingumas ir virinimas statybvietėje, kuris lėtina ir brangina statybas. Neseniai rinkoje paplitus akliniesiems varžtams, atsirado naujos mazgų projektavimo galimybės, leidžiančios išvengti virinimo statybvietėje ir pagreitinančios montavimą. Šitame straipsnyje apžvelgiama plieno ir betono kompozitinių kolonų mazgų ir jų jungimo priemonių raida bei šių mazgų pritaikymo praktikoje galimybės. Išskirtinis dėmesys skirtas apskritojo pavidalo kolonoms, nes dėl jų formos šių kolonų mazgai yra mažiausiai tyrinėti. Straipsnyje pateikiama trumpa atliktų tyrimų santrauka ir nubrėžiamos tolimesnių tyrimų kryptys.
Reikšminiai žodžiai: kompozitinės kolonos, plienas ir betonas, metalinė sija, mazgai, lenkta plokštelė, apžvalga.
Keyword : composite columns, steel-concrete, steel beam, connections, curved end plate, review
How to Cite
Mudrov, A. (2022). Connections between steel-concrete composite column and steel beam. Mokslas – Lietuvos Ateitis / Science – Future of Lithuania, 14. https://doi.org/10.3846/mla.2022.15213
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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An American National Standard. (2005). Prequalified connections for special and intermediate steel moment frames for seismic applications (AISC 358-5). American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, Illinois.
Bergmann, R., Matsui, C., Meinsma, C., & Dutta, D. (1995). Design Guide 5: For concrete filled hollow section columns under static and seismic loading. Verlag TÜV Rheinland.
Chen, Z., Qin, Y., & Wang, X. (2015). Development of connections to concrete-filled rectangular tubular columns. Advanced Steel Construction, 11(4), 408–426. https://doi.org/10.18057/IJASC.2015.11.4.1
Chiew, S. P., Lie, S. T., & Dai, C. W. (2001). Moment resistance of steel I-beam to CFT column connections. Journal of Structural Engineering, 127, 1164–1172. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2001)127:10(1164)
Dubina, D., Vulcu, C., Stratan, A., Ciutina, A., Grecea, D., Loan, A., Tremeea, A., Braconi, A., Fülöp, L., Jaspart, J.-P., Demonceau, J.-F., Hoang, L., Comeliau, L., Kuhlmann, U., Kleiner, A., Rasche, C., Landolfo, R., D’Aniello, M., Portioli, F., ...Ferrini, M. (2015). High strength steel in seismic resistant building frames (HSS-SERF). Publications Office of the European Union. https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/165258/1/KINA26933ENN_002.pdf
Gardner, A. P., & Goldsworthy, H. M. (1999, December). Moment-resisting connections for composite frames. In Proceedings of Conference on Mechanics of Structures & Materials (pp. 309–314), Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Gardner, A. P., & Goldsworthy, H. M. (2005). Experimental investigation of the stiffness of critical components in a moment-resisting composite connection. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 61(5), 709–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2004.11.004
Goldsworthy, H. M., & Gardner, A. P. (2006). Feasibility study for blind-bolted connections to concrete-filled circular steel tubular columns. Structural Engineering and Mechanics, 24(4), 463–478. https://doi.org/10.12989/SEM.2006.24.4.463
Guo, L., Wang, J., Wu, S., & Zhong, L. (2019). Experimental investigation and analytical modelling of blind bolted flush or extended end plate connections to circular CFDST columns. Engineering Structures, 192, 233–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.04.053
Hassan, M. M., Ramadan, H. M., Abdel-Mooty, M. N., & Mourad, S. A. (2014). Behavior of concentrically loaded CFT braces connections. Journal of Advanced Research, 5(2), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2013.03.005
Jaspart, J. P., & Maquoi, R. (1995). Effect of bolt preloading on joint behaviour. https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/30588/1/Effect%20of%20bolt%20preloading%20on%20joint%20behaviour.pdf
Jaspart, J. P. (1997). Recent advances in the field of steel joints: Column bases and further configurations for beam-to-column joints and beam splices. Universite de Liege, Faculte Des Sciences Appliques.
Khanouki, M. M. A., Ramli Sulong, N. H., Shariati, M., & Tahir, M. M. (2016). Investigation of through beam connection to concrete filled circular steel tube (CFCST) column. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 121, 144–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.01.002
Kim, S. H., & Choi, S. M. (2017). Tensile strength and concrete cone failure in CFT connection with internal diaphragms. International Journal of Steel Structures, 17(2), 643–652. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-017-6021-9
Landolfo, R., D’Aniello, M., Costanzo, S., Tartaglia, R., Stratan, A., Dubina, D., Vulcu, C., Maris, C., Zub, C., Da Silva, L., Rebelo, C., Augusto, H., Shahbazian, A., Gentili, F., Jaspart, J.-P., Demonceau, J.-F., Van Hoang, L., Elghazouli, A., Tsitos, A., ...Hamreza, C. (2017). European pre-QUALified steel JOINTS (EQUALJOINTS). Publications Office. https://op.europa.eu/s/owuM
Mollazadeh, H. M., & Wang, C. Y. (2016). New mechanism of load introduction into concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, 142(6), 04016016. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001470
Oktavianus, Y., Chang, H., Goldsworthy, H. M., & Gad, E. F. (2017). Component model for pull-out behaviour of headed anchored blind bolt within concrete filled circular hollow section. Engineering Structures, 148, 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.06.056
Oktavianus, Y., Goldsworthy, H., Gad, E., Fernando, S., Pokharel, T., & Chang, H. (2018). Sub-assemblage low damage connection incorporating blind-bolts and RBRFs subjected to cyclic loading. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 151, 280–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2018.09.026
Oktavianus, Y., Goldsworthy, H. M., & Gad, E. F. (2014). Behaviour of headed anchor blind bolts embedded in concrete filled circular hollow section column. Australian Earthquake Engineering Society.
Pačėsa, A. (2016). Platforminių mažo seisminio aktyvumo sričių seisminio pavojaus vertinimas Baltijos regiono pavyzdžiu. Vilniaus universitetas.
Ricles, J. M., Peng, S. W., & Lu, L. W. (2004). Seismic behavior of composite concrete filled steel tube column-wide flange beam moment connections. Journal of Structural Engineering, 130(2), 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2004)130:2(223)
Sheet, I. S., Gunasekaran, U., & MacRae, G. A. (2013). Experimental investigation of CFT column to steel beam connections under cyclic loading. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 86, 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2013.03.021
Tao, Z., Hassan, M. K., Song, T.-Y. Y., & Han, L.-H. H. (2017a). Experimental study on blind bolted connections to concrete-filled stainless steel columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 128, 825–838. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2016.10.016
Tao, Z., Li, W., Shi, B.-L., & Han, L.-H. (2017b). Behaviour of bolted end-plate connections to concrete-filled steel columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 134, 194–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2017.04.002
Thai, H.-T., Uy, B., & Aslani, F. (2017). Behaviour of bolted endplate composite joints to square and circular CFST columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 131, 68–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2016.12.022
Toyoda, M. (1995). Failure experience in Hanshin Great Earthquake. Journal of the Society of Materials Science, Japan, 44(504Appendix), 198–199. https://doi.org/10.2472/jsms.44.504Appendix_198
Wang, J., & Chen, L. (2012). Experimental investigation of extended end plate joints to concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 79, 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2012.07.016
Wang, J. F., Han, L. H., & Uy, B. (2009). Behaviour of flush end plate joints to concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 65(4), 925–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2008.10.010
Wang, J., Li, B., Wang, D., & Zhao, C. (2017a). Cyclic testing of steel beam blind bolted to CFST column composite frames with SBTD concrete slabs. Engineering Structures, 148, 293–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.06.065
Wang, J., Lu, J., Zhang, H., & Zhao, C. (2018). Experimental investigation on seismic performance of endplate composite joints to CFST columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 145, 352–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2018.03.006
Wang, J., Pan, X., & Peng, X. (2017b). Pseudo-dynamic tests of assembly blind bolted composite frames to CFST columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 139, 83–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2017.08.013
Wang, J., Pan, X., Peng, X., & Wang, J. (2019). Seismic response investigation and analyses of end plate moment-resisting CFST frames under pseudo-dynamic loads. International Journal of Steel Structures, 19, 1854–1874. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-019-00250-2
Wang, J., & Wang, H. (2018). Cyclic experimental behavior of CFST column to steel beam frames with blind bolted connections. International Journal of Steel Structures, 18(3), 773–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-018-0089-8
Wang, J., & Zhang, N. (2017). Performance of circular CFST column to steel beam joints with blind bolts. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 130, 36–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.11.026
Wang, N., & Lee, M. J. (2015). Structural behavior of beam-to-column connections of circular CFST columns by using mixed diaphragms. International Journal of Steel Structures, 15(2), 347–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-015-6007-4
Wu, Z., Zhang, S., & Jiang, S.-F. (2012). Simulation of tensile bolts in finite element modeling of semi-rigid beam-to-column connections. International Journal of Steel Structures, 12, 339–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-012-3004-8
Yang, Y., Liu, X., Zhang, J., Liu, J., & Cheng, W. (2019). Behavior of large-scale connections between circular concrete-filled steel tubular columns and H-section steel beams. Advances in Structural Engineering, 23(2), 307–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369433219870567
Yao, H., Goldsworthy, H., & Gad, E. (2008). Experimental and numerical investigation of the tensile behavior of blind-bolted T-Stub connections to concrete-filled circular columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, 134(2), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2008)134:2(198)
Yao, H., Goldsworthy, H., Gad, E., & Fernando, S. (2011). Experimental study on modified blind bolts anchored in concrete-filled steel tubular columns [Conference presentation]. Australian Earthquake Engineering Society 2011 Conference, Barossa Valley, South Australia.
Zhang, A. L., Li, S. H., Jiang, Z. Q., Fang, H., & Dou, C. (2017). Design theory of earthquake-resilient prefabricated sinusoidal corrugated web beam-column joint. Engineering Structures, 150, 665–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.07.088
Zhang, Z., Wang, J., Li, B., & Zhao, C. (2019). Seismic tests and numerical investigation of blind-bolted moment CFST frames infilled with thin-walled SPSWs. Thin-Walled Structures, 134, 347–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2018.10.009
Zhou, C., Chen, W., Ruan, X., & Tang, X. (2019). Experimental study on axial compression behavior and bearing capacity analysis of high titanium slag CFST columns. Applied Sciences, 9(10), 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9102021
An American National Standard. (2005). Prequalified connections for special and intermediate steel moment frames for seismic applications (AISC 358-5). American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, Illinois.
Bergmann, R., Matsui, C., Meinsma, C., & Dutta, D. (1995). Design Guide 5: For concrete filled hollow section columns under static and seismic loading. Verlag TÜV Rheinland.
Chen, Z., Qin, Y., & Wang, X. (2015). Development of connections to concrete-filled rectangular tubular columns. Advanced Steel Construction, 11(4), 408–426. https://doi.org/10.18057/IJASC.2015.11.4.1
Chiew, S. P., Lie, S. T., & Dai, C. W. (2001). Moment resistance of steel I-beam to CFT column connections. Journal of Structural Engineering, 127, 1164–1172. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2001)127:10(1164)
Dubina, D., Vulcu, C., Stratan, A., Ciutina, A., Grecea, D., Loan, A., Tremeea, A., Braconi, A., Fülöp, L., Jaspart, J.-P., Demonceau, J.-F., Hoang, L., Comeliau, L., Kuhlmann, U., Kleiner, A., Rasche, C., Landolfo, R., D’Aniello, M., Portioli, F., ...Ferrini, M. (2015). High strength steel in seismic resistant building frames (HSS-SERF). Publications Office of the European Union. https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/165258/1/KINA26933ENN_002.pdf
Gardner, A. P., & Goldsworthy, H. M. (1999, December). Moment-resisting connections for composite frames. In Proceedings of Conference on Mechanics of Structures & Materials (pp. 309–314), Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Gardner, A. P., & Goldsworthy, H. M. (2005). Experimental investigation of the stiffness of critical components in a moment-resisting composite connection. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 61(5), 709–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2004.11.004
Goldsworthy, H. M., & Gardner, A. P. (2006). Feasibility study for blind-bolted connections to concrete-filled circular steel tubular columns. Structural Engineering and Mechanics, 24(4), 463–478. https://doi.org/10.12989/SEM.2006.24.4.463
Guo, L., Wang, J., Wu, S., & Zhong, L. (2019). Experimental investigation and analytical modelling of blind bolted flush or extended end plate connections to circular CFDST columns. Engineering Structures, 192, 233–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.04.053
Hassan, M. M., Ramadan, H. M., Abdel-Mooty, M. N., & Mourad, S. A. (2014). Behavior of concentrically loaded CFT braces connections. Journal of Advanced Research, 5(2), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2013.03.005
Jaspart, J. P., & Maquoi, R. (1995). Effect of bolt preloading on joint behaviour. https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/30588/1/Effect%20of%20bolt%20preloading%20on%20joint%20behaviour.pdf
Jaspart, J. P. (1997). Recent advances in the field of steel joints: Column bases and further configurations for beam-to-column joints and beam splices. Universite de Liege, Faculte Des Sciences Appliques.
Khanouki, M. M. A., Ramli Sulong, N. H., Shariati, M., & Tahir, M. M. (2016). Investigation of through beam connection to concrete filled circular steel tube (CFCST) column. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 121, 144–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.01.002
Kim, S. H., & Choi, S. M. (2017). Tensile strength and concrete cone failure in CFT connection with internal diaphragms. International Journal of Steel Structures, 17(2), 643–652. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-017-6021-9
Landolfo, R., D’Aniello, M., Costanzo, S., Tartaglia, R., Stratan, A., Dubina, D., Vulcu, C., Maris, C., Zub, C., Da Silva, L., Rebelo, C., Augusto, H., Shahbazian, A., Gentili, F., Jaspart, J.-P., Demonceau, J.-F., Van Hoang, L., Elghazouli, A., Tsitos, A., ...Hamreza, C. (2017). European pre-QUALified steel JOINTS (EQUALJOINTS). Publications Office. https://op.europa.eu/s/owuM
Mollazadeh, H. M., & Wang, C. Y. (2016). New mechanism of load introduction into concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, 142(6), 04016016. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001470
Oktavianus, Y., Chang, H., Goldsworthy, H. M., & Gad, E. F. (2017). Component model for pull-out behaviour of headed anchored blind bolt within concrete filled circular hollow section. Engineering Structures, 148, 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.06.056
Oktavianus, Y., Goldsworthy, H., Gad, E., Fernando, S., Pokharel, T., & Chang, H. (2018). Sub-assemblage low damage connection incorporating blind-bolts and RBRFs subjected to cyclic loading. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 151, 280–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2018.09.026
Oktavianus, Y., Goldsworthy, H. M., & Gad, E. F. (2014). Behaviour of headed anchor blind bolts embedded in concrete filled circular hollow section column. Australian Earthquake Engineering Society.
Pačėsa, A. (2016). Platforminių mažo seisminio aktyvumo sričių seisminio pavojaus vertinimas Baltijos regiono pavyzdžiu. Vilniaus universitetas.
Ricles, J. M., Peng, S. W., & Lu, L. W. (2004). Seismic behavior of composite concrete filled steel tube column-wide flange beam moment connections. Journal of Structural Engineering, 130(2), 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2004)130:2(223)
Sheet, I. S., Gunasekaran, U., & MacRae, G. A. (2013). Experimental investigation of CFT column to steel beam connections under cyclic loading. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 86, 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2013.03.021
Tao, Z., Hassan, M. K., Song, T.-Y. Y., & Han, L.-H. H. (2017a). Experimental study on blind bolted connections to concrete-filled stainless steel columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 128, 825–838. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2016.10.016
Tao, Z., Li, W., Shi, B.-L., & Han, L.-H. (2017b). Behaviour of bolted end-plate connections to concrete-filled steel columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 134, 194–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2017.04.002
Thai, H.-T., Uy, B., & Aslani, F. (2017). Behaviour of bolted endplate composite joints to square and circular CFST columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 131, 68–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2016.12.022
Toyoda, M. (1995). Failure experience in Hanshin Great Earthquake. Journal of the Society of Materials Science, Japan, 44(504Appendix), 198–199. https://doi.org/10.2472/jsms.44.504Appendix_198
Wang, J., & Chen, L. (2012). Experimental investigation of extended end plate joints to concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 79, 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2012.07.016
Wang, J. F., Han, L. H., & Uy, B. (2009). Behaviour of flush end plate joints to concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 65(4), 925–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCSR.2008.10.010
Wang, J., Li, B., Wang, D., & Zhao, C. (2017a). Cyclic testing of steel beam blind bolted to CFST column composite frames with SBTD concrete slabs. Engineering Structures, 148, 293–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.06.065
Wang, J., Lu, J., Zhang, H., & Zhao, C. (2018). Experimental investigation on seismic performance of endplate composite joints to CFST columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 145, 352–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2018.03.006
Wang, J., Pan, X., & Peng, X. (2017b). Pseudo-dynamic tests of assembly blind bolted composite frames to CFST columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 139, 83–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2017.08.013
Wang, J., Pan, X., Peng, X., & Wang, J. (2019). Seismic response investigation and analyses of end plate moment-resisting CFST frames under pseudo-dynamic loads. International Journal of Steel Structures, 19, 1854–1874. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-019-00250-2
Wang, J., & Wang, H. (2018). Cyclic experimental behavior of CFST column to steel beam frames with blind bolted connections. International Journal of Steel Structures, 18(3), 773–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-018-0089-8
Wang, J., & Zhang, N. (2017). Performance of circular CFST column to steel beam joints with blind bolts. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 130, 36–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.11.026
Wang, N., & Lee, M. J. (2015). Structural behavior of beam-to-column connections of circular CFST columns by using mixed diaphragms. International Journal of Steel Structures, 15(2), 347–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-015-6007-4
Wu, Z., Zhang, S., & Jiang, S.-F. (2012). Simulation of tensile bolts in finite element modeling of semi-rigid beam-to-column connections. International Journal of Steel Structures, 12, 339–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-012-3004-8
Yang, Y., Liu, X., Zhang, J., Liu, J., & Cheng, W. (2019). Behavior of large-scale connections between circular concrete-filled steel tubular columns and H-section steel beams. Advances in Structural Engineering, 23(2), 307–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369433219870567
Yao, H., Goldsworthy, H., & Gad, E. (2008). Experimental and numerical investigation of the tensile behavior of blind-bolted T-Stub connections to concrete-filled circular columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, 134(2), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2008)134:2(198)
Yao, H., Goldsworthy, H., Gad, E., & Fernando, S. (2011). Experimental study on modified blind bolts anchored in concrete-filled steel tubular columns [Conference presentation]. Australian Earthquake Engineering Society 2011 Conference, Barossa Valley, South Australia.
Zhang, A. L., Li, S. H., Jiang, Z. Q., Fang, H., & Dou, C. (2017). Design theory of earthquake-resilient prefabricated sinusoidal corrugated web beam-column joint. Engineering Structures, 150, 665–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.07.088
Zhang, Z., Wang, J., Li, B., & Zhao, C. (2019). Seismic tests and numerical investigation of blind-bolted moment CFST frames infilled with thin-walled SPSWs. Thin-Walled Structures, 134, 347–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2018.10.009
Zhou, C., Chen, W., Ruan, X., & Tang, X. (2019). Experimental study on axial compression behavior and bearing capacity analysis of high titanium slag CFST columns. Applied Sciences, 9(10), 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9102021