Effects of the COVID-19 crisis on work-life balance, mental health, and perceived health status among Hungarian defense employees: a cross-sectional study
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2025.24189Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic impacted profoundly on the mental and physical health of defense personnel, due to their involvement in the enforcement of COVID-19 measures and confined work environments. This cross-sectional study assessed the effects of the pandemic on work-life balance, mental health, and perceived health status among Hungarian defense employees. Data was collected from 300 employees of a Hungarian defense company using an online questionnaire that included demographics, work-related observations, mental health scales (DASS), and perceived health status (SF-12). Data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated that work type, flexibility, and workload remained stable before, during, and after the pandemic. Compensation satisfaction (p = 0.025) showed a slight increase post-COVID-19, while organizational support did not significantly change (p > 0.05). Work-life balance significantly decreased during the pandemic (p = 0.012), and the mental health indicators stress (p = 0.005), anxiety (p < 0.001), and depression (p < 0.001) increased significantly. Reliability analysis (Cronbach’s alpha) demonstrated good internal consistency across the scales. These findings underscore the significant negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of defense employees, reinforcing the need for sustained support mechanisms to promote both physical and mental well-being in this workforce.
Keywords:
work-life balance, mental health, COVID-19 pandemic, defense employees, stress and anxiety, Hungarian militaryHow to Cite
Share
License
Copyright (c) 2025 The Author(s). Published by Vilnius Gediminas Technical University.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Acacio, I., Passos, A. M., & Pion-Berlin, D. (2023). Military responses to the COVID-19 pandemic crisis in Latin America: Military presence, autonomy, and human rights violations. Armed Forces & Society, 49(2), 372–394. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X211070035
Adler, A. B., Gutierrez, I. A., Gomez, S. A. Q., Beymer, M. R., Santo, T. J., Thomas, J. L., Cates, D. S., Bell, A. M., & Quartana, P. J. (2022). US soldiers and the role of leadership: COVID-19, mental health, and adherence to public health guidelines. BMC Public Health, 22(1), Article 943. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13345-z
Austrian Parliament. (2021). COVID-19: Beschwerden im Bundesheer 2020 verdoppelt. Retrieved January 19, 2025, from https://www.parlament.gv.at/aktuelles/pk/jahr_2021/pk1001
Baker, J. C., Bhola, S., Tabares, J. V., Beckman, D., Martin, C., Khazem, L. R., Bryan, A. O., & Bryan, C. J. (2023). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on indicators of psychological health and suicidal ideation within an active duty U.S. military population. Military Medicine, 188(Suppl 6), 450–456. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usad200
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands‐resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
Besenyő, J. (2019). The role of the Hungarian Defence Forces in handling the migration crisis. In V. Glied & L. Mező (Eds.), The impacts of the migration crisis in Central and Eastern Europe (pp. 165–182). Dialóg Campus.
Bond, G. R., Al-Abdulmunem, M., Ressler, D. R., & Drake, R. E. (2024). Mental health impact of COVID pandemic on veterans transitioning from military. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 51(2), 275–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11414-023-09869-w
Chin, J. J., & Kirkpatrick, J. (2023). African coups in the COVID-19 era: A current history. Frontiers in Political Science, 5. Article 1077945. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2023.1077945
Crocker, K. M., Gnatt, I., Haywood, D., Butterfield, I., Bhat, R., Lalitha, A. R. N., Jenkins, Z. M., & Castle, D. J. (2023). The impact of COVID-19 on the mental health workforce: A rapid review. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 32(2), 420–445. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13097
Dascalu, S. (2020). The successes and failures of the initial COVID-19 pandemic response in Romania. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, Article 344. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00344
Cronk, T. M. (2020). Military medical experts explore psychological impacts of COVID-19. U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved September 12, 2024, from https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/2200525/military-medical-experts-explore-psychological-impacts-of-covid-19/
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. (2021). COVID-19 situation updates for the EU/EEA. Retrieved September 13, 2024, from https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/covid-19/situation-updates
Gómez-Galán, J., Lázaro-Pérez, C., Martínez-López, J. Á., & Fernández-Martínez, M. d. M. (2020). Burnout in Spanish security forces during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(23), Article 8790. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238790
Gomez, S. A. Q., Beymer, M. R., Jackson Santo, T., Riviere, L. A., Adler, A. B., Thomas, J. L., Millikan Bell, A., & Quartana, P. J. (2023). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on army families: Household finances, familial experiences, and soldiers’ behavioral health. Military Psychology, 35(5), 420–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2149190
Goodman, T. M., & Martinez, R. N. (2024). The self-reported impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological health of U.S. Air Force cyber personnel. Military Psychology, 36(5), 479–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2209491
Gracia-Lanchares, S., Garrido-Hernansaiz, H., Bueno-Guerra, N., & Rodríguez-Rey, R. (2024). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and predictors among spanish police and armed forces during the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 66(6), 506–513. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000003104
Griffith, R. L., Dostal, C., Moon, N. A., & Fedele, D. (2023). The COVID-19 pandemic and the military: Lessons learned for readiness and resilience. Military Psychology, 35(5), 377–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2237392
Guo, X., Wu, L., Yu, X., Sun, Z., & Liu, W. (2020). Mental health care for military personnel in the COVID-19 epidemic. Military Medicine, 185(9–10), e1401–e1405. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usaa127
Gupta, S., Kohli, K., Padmakumari, P., Dixit, P. K., Prasad, A. S., Chakravarthy, B. S., Shukla, R., Ghana, P., Mahapatra, D., & Varadaraj, G. (2020). Psychological health among armed forces doctors during COVID-19 pandemic in India. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 42(4), 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0253717620934037
Hansen, K. T., Plouffe, R. A., Walker, D. L., Wanklyn, S. G., Lamrock, L., Maher, P., Nazarov, A., & Richardson, J. D. (2023). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health and well-being of Veterans’ spouses: A cross sectional analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 23(1), Article 188. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04687-y
Hill, M. L., Nichter, B., Na, P. J., Norman, S. B., Morland, L. A., Krystal, J. H., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2023). Mental health impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in U.S. military veterans: A population-based, prospective cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 53(3), 945–956. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291721002361
Ivančík, R., & Andrassy, V. (2024). Hybrid threats and the pandemic: Reflections on securitization in Central Europe. Vojenské Reflexie, 3(2024), 118–135.
Johansen, B., & Eriksen, K. (2022). Work-life balance and mental health among Norwegian armed forces during the COVID-19 pandemic. Scandinavian Journal of Military Psychology, 9(2), 143–156.
Kalkman, J. P. (2021). Military crisis responses to COVID‐19. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 29(1), 99–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12328
Katole, A. (2023). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on global economy. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 12(11), 2565–2568. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_940_23
Klementová, I., Caha, Z., & Mrhálek, T. (2023). Changes in employee motivation for education in companies before and during the Covid-19 pandemic. Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues, 10(4), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2023.10.4(6)
Knežević, M. (2022). The defence expenditure and spending of the Republic of Serbia with special reference to the COVID-19 pandemic period. Vojno delo, 74, 95–112. https://doi.org/10.5937/vojdelo2202095K
Kotoulas, A. S., Karamanavis, D., Lambrou, G., & Karanikas, P. (2023). A pilot study of the depression, anxiety and stress in Greek military personnel during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Military Health, 169(4), 297–301. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjmilitary-2021-001874
Kupcova, I., Danisovic, L., Klein, M., & Harsanyi, S. (2023). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health, anxiety, and depression. BMC Psychology, 11(1), Article 108. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01130-5
Lee, C., Yun, B., Lee, W. T., Sim, J., Kim, C. N., Won, J. U., & Yoon, J. H. (2022). Resilience and depressive symptoms among medical staff in a military hospital dedicated to the treatment of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(18), Article 11576. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811576
Li, S., Huang, S., Hu, S., & Lai, J. (2023). Psychological consequences among veterans during the COVID-19 pandemic: A scoping review. Psychiatry Research, 324, Article 115229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115229
Lincényi, M., & Mindár, M. (2022). Impact of distant teaching during COVID-19 pandemic on civic and financial literacy. Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues, 10(1), Article 92. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2022.10.1(5)
Lindström, L., & Olsson, H. (2022). Mental health support and resilience in the Swedish armed forces during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Nordic Journal of Military Studies, 11(3), 77–89.
Lopez, C. T. (2021). DOD identifies more troops to help administer COVID-19 vaccine. U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved August, 27, 2021, from https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/2526831/dod-identifies-more-troops-to-help-administer-covid-19-vaccine/
Mahar, A. L., Rindlisbacher, C. R., Edgelow, M., Siddhpuria, S., Hallet, J., Rochon, P. A., & Cramm, H. (2022). COVID-19 and the mental health of Canadian armed forces veterans: A cross-sectional survey. Military Medicine, 187(11–12), e1278–e1280. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usab157
Mariani, R., Di Monte, C., Murgia, F., Foglia, E., Deiana, S., Ravecca, F., Fanelli, G., Cippitelli, F., Trabucco Aurilio, P., Renzi, A., Tambelli, R., Sebastiani, N., & Di Trani, M. (2024). Exploring burnout in the Italian Armed Forces amid the COVID-19 pandemic: A clustering approach to identify psychological preventing and risk factors. Current Psychology, 43(19), 17432–17442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05688-0
Matthias, M. S., Adams, J., Burgess, D. J., Daggy, J., Gowan, T. M., Perkins, A. J., & Eliacin, J. (2022). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on black veterans’ mental health: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 33(3), 1275–1290. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2022.0112
Mikołajczak, P., Schmidt, J., & Skikiewicz, R. (2022). The COVID-19 pandemic consequences to the activity of NGOs. Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues, 9(3), Article 330. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2022.9.3(20)
Mitchell, N. A., McCauley, M., O’Brien, D., & Wilson, C. E. (2023). Mental health and resilience in the Irish defense forces during the COVID-19 global pandemic. Military Psychology, 35(5), 383–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2021.2007728
Müller, H., & Schmidt, T. (2021). The Impact of COVID-19 on German military personnel’s mental health: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Military Health, 15(4), 225–237.
Na, P., Tsai, J., Harpaz-Rotem, I., & Pietrzak, R. (2022, Feb). Mental health and suicidal ideation in US military veterans with histories of COVID-19 infection. BMJ Military Health, 168(1), 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjmilitary-2021-001846
Nair, V. S., & Banerjee, D. (2021). Vulnerabilities due to COVID-19 pandemic among the military personnel: A psychosocial perspective. Indian Journal of Psychiatric Social Work, 12(1), 62–67. https://doi.org/10.29120/ijpsw.2021.v12.i1.236
Nandi, S., & Chauhan, C. (2022). Chapter Five – Impact of COVID-19 on decent work, economic growth, and world trade. In M. H. Dehghani, R. R. Karri, & S. Roy (Eds.), COVID-19 and the sustainable development goals (pp. 105–121). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91307-2.00002-X
Ndiaye, S. M., Dembélé, D. S., Lo, M., Fané, A., Diagne, F. M., Dembélé, K. K., Fall, K., Djiba, M. N., Ndiaye, S., & Diallo, T. S. (2024). Military affected by the first wave of COVID-19 in Senegal: Stress and resilience factors during care. Pan African Medical Journal, 47, Article 53. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2024.47.53.36263
Nowrouzi-Kia, B., Haritos, A. M., Long, B. S., Atikian, C., Fiorini, L. A., Gohar, B., Howe, A., Li, Y., & Bani-Fatemi, A. (2024). Remote work transition amidst COVID-19: Impacts on presenteeism, absenteeism, and worker well-being-A scoping review. PLoS One, 19(7), Article e0307087. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307087
Payne, D. C., Smith-Jeffcoat, S. E., Nowak, G., Chukwuma, U., Geibe, J. R., Hawkins, R. J., Johnson, J. A., Thornburg, N. J., Schiffer, J., Weiner, Z., Bankamp, B., Bowen, M. D., MacNeil, A., Patel, M. R., Deussing, E., & Gillingham, B. L. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 infections and serologic responses from a sample of U.S. Navy Service Members – USS Theodore Roosevelt, April 2020. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(23), 714–721. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6923e4
Poenaru, F. (2021). COVID-19 in Romania – the militarization of social life and the banality of death. Dialectical Anthropology, 45(4), 405–417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10624-021-09632-7
Pomer, A., Munigala, S., Coles, C. L., Mitro, J. P., Schoenfeld, A. J., Weissman, J. S., & Koehlmoos, T. P. (2024). The response of the Military Health System (MHS) to the COVID-19 pandemic: A summary of findings from MHS reviews. Health Research and Policy Systems, 22(1), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-023-01093-4
Purcell, N., Sells, J., McGrath, S., Mehlman, H., Bertenthal, D., & Seal, K. H. (2021). “Then COVID happened…”: Veterans’ Health, wellbeing, and engagement in whole health care during the COVID-19 pandemic. Global Advances in Health and Medicine, 2021, Article 10. https://doi.org/10.1177/21649561211053828
Quartana, P. J., Beymer, M. R., Gomez, S. A. Q., Adler, A. B., Santo, T. J., Thomas, J. L., & Bell, A. M. (2023). COVID-19 concerns, information needs, and adverse mental health outcomes among U.S. soldiers. Military Medicine, 189(3–4), e878–e887. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usad350
Rossi, G. B., M., Ferrari, L., & Moretti, A. (2021). Mental health interventions for Italian military personnel during the COVID-19 pandemic: A nationwide survey. Military Medicine, 186(12), 1152–1160.
Rossi, M. F., Gualano, M. R., Magnavita, N., Moscato, U., Santoro, P. E., & Borrelli, I. (2023). Coping with burnout and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on workers’ mental health: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, Article 1139260. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1139260
Sahlabadi, A., Khazaei, P., Ramezanifar, S., Gharari, N., & Farahani, A. (2022). Investigating the prevalence of COVID-19 among the armed forces and its impact on their mental health: Systematic review. Journal of Military Medicine, 24, 1086–1095. https://doi.org/10.30491/JMM.24.2.1086
Schaughency, K. C., Watkins, E. Y., & Preston III, S. L. (2021). Is suicide a social phenomenon during the COVID-19 pandemic? Differences by birth cohort on suicide among active component army soldiers, 1 January 2000 – 4 June 2021. Medical Surveillance Monthly Report, 28(9), 8–12.
Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(1), 27-41. https://doi.org/10.1037//1076-8998.1.1.27
Silver, H. (2023). Working from home: Before and after the pandemic. Contexts (Berkeley Calif), 22(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/15365042221142839
Spiller, T. R., Na, P. J., Merians, A. N., Duek, O., Ben-Zion, Z., Tsai, J., von Känel, R., Harpaz-Rotem, I., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2023). Changes in mental health among U.S. military veterans during the COVID-19 pandemic: A network analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 165, 352–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.08.003
Sudom, K. A., & Lee, J. E. C. (2022, Mar). Well-being of Canadian Armed Forces members during the COVID-19 pandemic: The influence of positive health behaviours. Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada, 42(3), 113–121. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.42.3.05
Valladares-Garrido, M. J., Picón-Reategui, C. K., Mesta-Pintado, A. P., Picón-Reategui, R. A., Huaman-Garcia, M., Pereira-Victorio, C. J., Valladares-Garrido, D., & Failoc-Rojas, V. E. (2022a). Association between working time and burnout syndrome in Peruvian military during the second epidemic wave of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(20), Article 13614. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013614
Valladares-Garrido, M. J., Picón-Reátegui, C. K., Zila-Velasque, J. P., Grados-Espinoza, P., Hinostroza-Zarate, C. M., Failoc-Rojas, V. E., & Pereira-Victorio, C. J. (2022b). Suicide risk in military personnel during the COVID-19 health emergency in a Peruvian region: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(20), Article 13502. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013502
Valladares-Garrido, M. J., Picón-Reátegui, C. K., Zila-Velasque, J. P., Grados-Espinoza, P., Vera-Ponce, V. J., Pereira-Victorio, C. J., Valladares-Garrido, D., & Failoc-Rojas, V. E. (2023). Depression and anxiety in Peruvian military personnel during the pandemic context: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 23(1), Article 691. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15612-z
Vuga Beršnak, J., Humer, Ž., & Lobe, B. (2023). Characteristics of pandemic work–life balance in Slovenian military families during the lockdown: Who has paid the highest price? Current Sociology, 71(5), 866–886. https://doi.org/10.1177/00113921211048519
Walker, D. E. A., & Turner, S. (2021). Mental health support structures in the UK Armed forces during COVID-19: Lessons learned. British Journal of Military Health, 29(1), 67–74.
World Health Organization. (2020). Mental health and psychosocial considerations during the COVID-19 outbreak. Retrieved September 13, 2024, from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/mental-health-considerations.pdf
World Health Organization. (2021). Hungary’s response to COVID-19. Retrieved September 13, 2024, from https://www.who.int/countries/hun/
Yehuda, R., Vermetten, E., & McFarlane, A. C. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic: A “perfect storm” for trauma- and stressor-related disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 37(7), 638–645.
Zhu, N., Zhang, D., Wang, W., Li, X., Yang, B., Song, J., Zhao, X., Huang, B., Shi, W., Lu, R., Niu, P., Zhan, F., Ma, X., Wang, D., Xu, W., Wu, G., Gao, G. F., & Tan, W. (2020). A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. New England Journal of Medicine, 382(8), 727–733. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017
View article in other formats
CrossMark check
Published
Issue
Section
Copyright
Copyright (c) 2025 The Author(s). Published by Vilnius Gediminas Technical University.
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.