Effect of daytime and nighttime on helicopter pilot’s gaze behavior: a preliminary study in real flight conditions
Abstract
Nighttime affects pilot visual scan patterns and increase the risks of helicopter operations, contributing to many helicopter accidents and incidents. Several past studies have attempted to examine the effect of nighttime on helicopter pilot gaze behavior, but researchers had limited success due to the difficulty of collecting representative data under real flight conditions. The present study attempted to address this challenge by conducting a real flight study involving daytime and nighttime traffic pattern tasks and using a Tobii Glasses 3 eye-tracking device to collect helicopter pilot eye-tracking data. This study preliminarily explored the feasibility of data collection in real flight conditions in the context of eye-tracking research on civil helicopter pilots in China. Due to safety considerations, only one pilot was recruited to collect data in multiple tasks. Differences and correlations were examined for all gaze behavior metrics. The results suggested that pilot gaze behavior metrics and their correlations differed between daytime and nighttime flights in aspects critical to aviation safety. Pilot gaze behavior also varied with the flight phase. The findings from this study serve as a reference for optimizing helicopter pilot training systems, improving pilot performance during nighttime flights, and ensuring flight safety on helicopters.
Keyword : aviation safety, helicopter pilot, gaze behavior, daytime and nighttime, real flights, preliminary study
How to Cite
Zhang, C., He, J., Liu, C., Zhu, W., Luo, S., & Jiang, C. (2024). Effect of daytime and nighttime on helicopter pilot’s gaze behavior: a preliminary study in real flight conditions. Aviation, 28(4), 235–246. https://doi.org/10.3846/aviation.2024.22751
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Ziv, G. (2016). Gaze behavior and visual attention: A review of eye tracking studies in aviation. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 26(3), 75–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508414.2017.1313096
Ayala, N., Zafar, A., Kearns, S., Irving, E., Cao, S., & Niechwiej-Szwedo, E. (2023). The effects of task difficulty on gaze behaviour during landing with visual flight rules in low-time pilots. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.16.1.3
Ayala, N., Zafar, A., & Niechwiej-Szwedo, E. (2022). Gaze behaviour: A window into distinct cognitive processes revealed by the tower of London test. Vision Research, 199, Article 108072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2022.108072
Bai, J., Liu, S., & Yang, K. (2018). Effect of different visibility on pilot’s eye movement during take-off. Chinese Journal of Ergonomics, 24(2), 17–21. https://doi.org/10.13837/j.issn.1006-8309.2018.02.0004
Bitkina, O. V., Park, J., & Kim, H. K. (2021). The ability of eye-tracking metrics to classify and predict the perceived driving workload. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 86, Article 103193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2021.103193
Blacker, A. B., Baldwin, B., Wilson, D., & Ochoa, R. (2018). Pupil diameter and illuminance measurements in day and night baseball game scenarios. Optometry & Visual Performance, 6(1), 6–10. https://www.ovpjournal.org/uploads/2/3/8/9/23898265/ovp6-1_article_blacker_web.pdf
Bustamante-Sánchez, Á., & Clemente-Suárez, V. J. (2020). Psychophysiological response in night and instrument helicopter flights. Ergonomics, 63(4), 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2020.1718772
Cheng, L., Shen, Y. C., He, Q., & Zhang, M. J. (2024). Spying with a pilot’s eye: Using eye tracking to investigate pilots’ attention allocation and workload during helicopter autorotative gliding. Heliyon, 10(16), Article e35872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35872
De Brouwer, A. J., Flanagan, J. R., & Spering, M. (2021). Functional use of eye movements for an acting system. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(3), 252–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2020.12.006
Diaz-Piedra, C., Rieiro, H., Cherino, A., Fuentes, L. J., Catena, A., & Di Stasi, L. L. (2019). The effects of flight complexity on gaze entropy: An experimental study with fighter pilots. Applied Ergonomics, 77, 92–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2019.01.012
European Commission. (2012). Commission regulation (EU) No 965/2012. Official Journal of the European Union. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2012/965/oj
Evans, T., Stuckey, R., & Macdonald, W. (2020). Young drivers’ perceptions of risk and difficulty: Day versus night. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 147, Article 105753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2020.105753
Federal Aviation Administration. (2019). 14 CFR § 61.57: Recent flight experience: Pilot in command. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/part-61/section-61.57
Greiwe, D. H., & Friedrich, M. (2024). Gaze movements of helicopter pilots during real and simulated take-off and landing maneuvers. Aerospace, 11(6), Article 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11060429
Hebbar, P. A., Bhattacharya, K., Prabhakar, G., Pashilkar, A. A., & Biswas, P. (2021). Correlation between physiological and performance-based metrics to estimate pilots’ cognitive workload. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 555446. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.555446
Huo, D., Ma, J., & Chang, R. (2020). Lane-changing-decision characteristics and the allocation of visual attention of drivers with an angry driving style. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 71, 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2020.03.008
Jang, H. J., Cho, Y. C., & Kang, J. G. (2024). Changes in pupil size according to age, gender, and refractive power during daytime and nighttime. Journal of Korean Ophthalmic Optics Society, 29(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.14479/jkoos.2024.29.1.19
Kiliç, B., & Gümüş, E. (2020). Application of HFACS to the nighttime aviation accidents and incidents. Journal of Aviation, 4(2), 10–16. https://doi.org/10.30518/jav.740590
Liu, C., Zhang, C., Sun, L., Liu, K., Liu, H., Zhu, W., & Jiang, C. (2023). Detection of pilot mental workload using a wireless EEG headset in airfield traffic pattern tasks. Entropy, 25(7), Article 1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/e25071035
Loe, D. L. (2016). Light, vision and illumination: The interaction revisited. Lighting Research & Technology, 48(2), 176–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477153515572240
Luzik, E. V., & Akmaldinova, A. N. (2006). Psychological aspects of ensuring flight safety in civil aviation. Aviation, 10(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.3846/16487788.2006.9635924
Newman, D. G. (2007). An overview of spatial disorientation as a factor in aviation accidents and incidents. Australian Transport Safety Bureau, Canberra City.
Orduna-Hospital, E., Navarro-Marques, A., Lopez-de-la-Fuente, C., & Sanchez-Cano, A. (2023). Eye-tracker study of the developmental eye movement test in young people without binocular dysfunctions. Life-Basel, 13(3), Article 773. https://doi.org/10.3390/life13030773
Pan, L., Sun, Y., Liu, X., Yu, T., & Tan, W. (2017). Effect of aircraft cabin low illumination on visual ergonomics of pilots. Chinese Journal of Ergonomics, 23(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.13837/j.issn.1006-8309.2017.01.0001
Rainieri, G., Fraboni, F., Russo, G., Tul, M., Pingitore, A., Tessari, A., & Pietrantoni, L. (2021). Visual scanning techniques and mental workload of helicopter pilots during simulated flight. Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance, 92(1), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.5681.2021
Ramee, C., Speirs, A., Payan, A. P., & Mavris, D. (2021). Analysis of weather-related helicopter accidents and incidents in the United States. In AIAA Aviation 2021 Forum. Aerospace Research Central. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2021-2954
Sánchez-Tena, M. Á., Alvarez-Peregrina, C., Valbuena-Iglesias, M. C., & Palomera, P. R. (2018). Optical illusions and spatial disorientation in aviation pilots. Journal of Medical Systems, 42, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10916-018-0935-4
Scannella, S., Peysakhovich, V., Ehrig, F., Lepron, E., & Dehais, F. (2018). Assessment of ocular and physiological metrics to discriminate flight phases in real light aircraft. Human Factors, 60(7), 922–935. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720818787135
Senol, M. B., Dagdeviren, M., Cilingir, C., & Kurt, M. (2010). Display panel design of a general utility helicopter by applying quantitative and qualitative approaches. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries, 20(1), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1002/hfm.20167
Sharma, P. K., & Chakraborty, P. (2024). A review of driver gaze estimation and application in gaze behavior understanding. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 133, Article 108117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engappai.2024.108117
Stanko, Ľ., Sabo, J., Sekelova, M., & Rozenberg, R. (2017). Methodology of VFR night flying. Magazine of Aviation Development, 5(1), 26–30. https://doi.org/10.14311/MAD.2017.01.05
Tamura, A., Wada, Y., Shimizu, N., Inui, T., & Shiotani, A. (2016). Correlation of climbing perception and eye movements during daytime and nighttime takeoffs using a flight simulator. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 136(5), 433–438. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016489.2015.1132844
Veltman, J. A. (2002). A comparative study of psychophysiological reactions during simulator and real flight. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 12(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327108IJAP1201_4
Viertler, F., & Hajek, M. (2017). Evaluation of visual augmentation methods for rotorcraft pilots in degraded visual environments. Journal of the American Helicopter Society, 62(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.4050/JAHS.62.012005
Vlačić, S., Knežević, A., Rođenkov, S., Mandal, S., & Vitsas, P. A. (2019). Improving the pilot selection process by using eye-tracking tools. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.3.4
Yan, G., Xiong, J., Zang, C., Yu, L., Cui, L., & Bai, X. (2013). Review of eye-movement measures in reading research. Advances in Psychological Science, 21(4), 589–605. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2013.00589
Yap, B. W., & Sim, C. H. (2011). Comparisons of various types of normality tests. Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation, 81(12), 2141–2155. https://doi.org/10.1080/00949655.2010.520163
Zhang, C., Liu, C., Liu, H., Jiang, C., Fu, L., Wen, C., & Cao, W. (2023). Incorporation of pilot factors into risk analysis of civil aviation accidents from 2008 to 2020: A data-driven Bayesian network approach. Aerospace, 10(1), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10010009
Zhang, X., Qu, X., Xue, H., Tao, D., & Li, T. (2019). Effects of time of day and taxi route complexity on navigation errors: An experimental study. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 125, 14–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2019.01.019
Ziv, G. (2016). Gaze behavior and visual attention: A review of eye tracking studies in aviation. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 26(3), 75–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508414.2017.1313096